In automation design, the choice between a Stepper Motor and a Servo Motor is often decided by budget. But looking at the price tag alone is a mistake that leads to machine failure. Steppers are excellent for holding loads stationary (high holding torque). Servos are kings of high-speed motion. If you choose a stepper for a high-speed application, it will lose torque and "miss steps." If you choose a servo for a simple low-speed application, you have wasted $500. This guide explains the physics behind the choice. Table of Contents 1. Open Loop vs. Closed Loop (The Risk) 2. The Torque Curve: Speed Kills Steppers 3. Inertia Mismatch 4. Selection Summary Advertisement 1. Open Loop vs. Closed Loop (The Risk) The biggest difference is not the motor itself, but how it is controlled. Figure 1: Steppers run "blind" (Open Loop). Servos use an encoder to verify position (Closed Loop). ...
Selecting the right fastener is not just about size; it is about understanding the complex mechanics of the joint itself. A properly designed bolted joint acts like a rigid spring system, where the balance between bolt tension and joint compression determines safety and longevity.
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JOINT DESIGN AND FASTENER SELECTION
Figure 1: High-strength socket head cap screws are critical for precision joint design.
Joint Length
The longer the joint length (grip length), the greater the total elongation required to produce the desired clamp load. In design, a longer joint length generally decreases the potential loss of preload over time due to settling or vibration.
Joint Material Stiffness
If the clamped material is stiff relative to the bolt, it will compress less under load. This results in a "less sensitive" joint—one that is more resistant to preload loss from brinelling (surface indenting), relaxation, or loosening.
Thread Stripping Strength
There must be sufficient engagement length to carry the load without stripping the threads. Ideally, the design should ensure the bolt breaks in tension before the threads strip. When using a nut, both the wall thickness and height must be sufficient to support the proof load of the bolt.
Design Insight: Safety factors must be determined by the designer based on the consequence of failure. Critical joints often require factors of 2.0 or higher, accounting for load uncertainty and potential corrosion.
SHEAR APPLICATIONS
Shear Strength vs. Tensile Strength
Not all applications apply a tensile load. In shear applications, the load acts perpendicular to the fastener axis. A useful rule of thumb for estimating shear strength:
- Alloy Steel: Shear strength ≈ 60% of Tensile Strength.
- Stainless Steel (300 Series): Shear strength ≈ 50-55% of Tensile Strength.
Single vs. Double Shear
Single shear strength is exactly one-half of the double shear value. Shear strength (psi) is calculated as the shear load (lbs) divided by the cross-sectional area (sq in).
OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 2: Material selection (Alloy vs. Stainless) depends heavily on the operating environment.
Application Temperature
Standard alloy steels function well up to 550°F–600°F. If plating is used (e.g., Cadmium), the limit drops to ~450°F. Austenitic stainless steels (300 Series) maintain strength up to 800°F, though surface oxidation may begin at that point.
Corrosion Environment
Plating (Zinc, Cadmium) is sufficient for mild atmospheres. For severe environments, specify corrosion-resistant materials like Stainless Steel or exotic alloys (Monel, Inconel).
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FATIGUE STRENGTH
The S-N Curve
Fatigue performance is plotted on an S-N curve (Stress vs. Number of Cycles). The stress is plotted on the Y-axis and cycles on a logarithmic X-axis. A typical test ratio is R = 0.1, meaning the minimum load is 10% of the maximum load.
Figure 3: Typical S-N Curve. The horizontal portion represents the endurance limit (infinite life).
Modified Goodman Diagram
Since S-N curves are based on specific test conditions, designers use the Modified Goodman Diagram for real-world applications. This tool predicts fatigue life by accounting for the actual mean stress (preload) and alternating stress in the joint.
Figure 4: The Goodman Diagram helps designers ensure the fastener stays within the safe fatigue envelope.
METHODS OF PRELOADING
1. Elongation Measurement (Direct)
Steel has a modulus of ~30,000,000 psi. This means a bolt stretches 0.001 inches per inch of length for every 30,000 psi of stress.
Example: To achieve 90,000 psi preload, the bolt must stretch 0.003 in/in. This is the most accurate method but requires access to both ends of the fastener.
2. Torque Control
The most common method. Fastener manufacturers provide recommended seating torques based on friction assumptions (K-factor). While convenient, accuracy depends heavily on lubrication quality and operator skill.
3. Turn-of-the-Nut
After snugging the joint, the nut is turned a specific number of degrees (e.g., 120°). In theory, 360° of rotation elongates the bolt by one thread pitch. This method is effective for structural steel but relies on a consistent "snug" starting point.
4. Strain Gages
For critical applications, strain gages can be installed inside the bolt or on the shank. This provides real-time load data but is significantly more expensive.
For detailed technical data, visit the Unbrako website.
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